Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus from food samples in Nepal
-
Suprina Sharma
,
Dev Raj Joshi
,
Pramod Poudel
,
Supriya Sharma
,
Tika Bahadur Karki
,
Reshma Tuladhar
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Maize and peanuts, staple foods in Nepal, are highly susceptible to fungal contamination, particularly with aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus. This study aimed to detect aflatoxin-producing A. flavus in maize and peanut samples collected from different regions of Nepal.
Materials and Methods: A total of 80 maize and 20 peanut samples were collected randomly from markets and households. Disinfected samples were inoculated on Potato Dextrose Agar and incubated at 28°C for 48 hours. A. flavus was identified by conventional cultural methods. Aflatoxin production was screened on Aspergillus Differential Medium (ADM) and confirmed through Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).
Results: Fungal contamination was detected in 67.0% of samples, with a significantly higher rate in household-stored samples (p = 0.00039). A. flavus was the predominant species, particularly in maize (72.5%). Of 50 A. flavus isolates, 15 (30%) were aflatoxin positive on ADM, with 11 (73.3%) being confirmed by TLC. HPLC revealed AFB1 as the most prevalent in both maize and peanuts, while AFB2 was restricted to maize.
Conclusion: Maize and peanuts are highly susceptible to contamination with aflatoxin producing A. flavus in Nepal, particularly in household-stored samples, emphasizing significant food safety concerns.
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24. Huong BTM, Tuyen LD, Do TT, Madsen H, Brimer L, Dalsgaard A. Aflatoxins and fumonisins in rice and maize staple cereals in northern Vietnam and dietary exposure in different ethnic groups. Food Control 2016;70:191-200.
25. Heussner A, Bingle L. Comparative ochratoxin toxicity: a review of the available data. Toxins 2015;7:4253-4282.
26. Samson RA, Visagie CM, Houbraken J, Hong SB, Hubka V, Klaassen CHW, et al. Phylogeny, identification and nomenclature of the genus Aspergillus. Stud Mycol 2014;78:141-173.
27. Daliri A, Shams-Ghahfarokhi M, Razzaghi-Abyaneh M. Detection of aflatoxin B1-producing Aspergillus flavus strains from pistachio orchard soils in Iran by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Curr Med Mycol 2023;9:1-7.
28. De Saeger S. Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2011. p.456.
29. Farzaneh M, Shi ZQ, Ghassempour A, Sedaghat N, Ahmadzadeh M, Mirabolfathy M, et al. Aflatoxin B1 degradation by Bacillus subtilis UTBSP1 isolated from pistachio nuts of Iran. Food Control 2012 23:100-106.
30. Kumar A, Pathak H, Bhadauria S, Sudan J. Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes, detection, and management: a review. Food Prod Process Nutr 2021;3:17.
31. Saif-Ur-Rahman KM, Hasan M, Hossain S, Shafique S, Khalequzzaman M, Haseen F, et al. Non-pharmacological interventions for the prevention of hypertension in low-income and middle-income countries: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2018;8(5):e020724.
32. Shah HU, Simpson JT, Alam S, Khattak AS, Perveen S. Mould incidence and mycotoxin contamination in maize kernels from Swat Valley, North West Frontier Province of Pakistan. Food Chem Toxicol 2010 48:1111 1106.
33. Sharma S, Joshi DR, Poudel P, Sharma S, Karki TB, Tuladhar R. Antifungal activity of Bacillus species isolated from soil samples of Nepal against aflatoxin producing Aspergillus spp. J Inst Sci Technol 2025;30:231-236.
34. Lamichhane A, Regmi S, Pandit K, Upadhaya S, Acharya J, Koirala S, et al. Identification of fungal pathogens among COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 cases in Bhaktapur Hospital, Nepal. BMC Res Notes 2024;17:347.
2. Liu Y, Wu F. Global burden of aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma: a risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 2010 118:818-824.
3. Joshi P, Chauysrinule C, Mahakarnchanakul W, Maneeboon T. Multi-mycotoxin contamination, mold incidence and risk assessment of aflatoxin in maize kernels originating from Nepal. Microbiol Res 2022 15;13:258-277.
4. Bhat R, Rai RV, Karim AA. Mycotoxins in food and feed: present status and future concerns. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2010 9:57-81.
5. Kensler TW, Roebuck BD, Wogan GN, Groopman JD. Aflatoxin: a 50-year odyssey of mechanistic and translational toxicology. Toxicol Sci 2011 120(Suppl 1):S28-48.
6. Kumar P, Mahato DK, Kamle M, Mohanta TK, Kang SG. Aflatoxins: a global concern for food safety, human health and their management. Front Microbiol 2017;7:2170.
7. Bruix J, Reig M, Sherman M. Evidence-based diagnosis, staging, and treatment of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2016 150:835-853.
8. Yoshida H, Mamada Y, Taniai N, Uchida E. Spontaneous ruptured hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatol Res 2016 46:13-21.
9. Lee HJ, Ryu D. Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-derived food products: public health perspectives of their co-occurrence. J Agric Food Chem 2017 65:7034-7051.
10. Udomkun P, Wiredu AN, Nagle M, Müller J, Vanlauwe B, Bandyopadhyay R. Innovative technologies to manage aflatoxins in foods and feeds and the profitability of application: a review. Food Control 2017 76:127-138.
11. Ismail A, Gonçalves BL, De Neeff DV, Ponzilacqua B, Coppa CFSC, Hintzsche H, et al. Aflatoxin in foodstuffs: occurrence and recent advances in decontamination. Food Res Int 2018 113:74-85.
12. Norlia M, Jinap S, Nor-Khaizura MAR, Radu S, Samsudin NIP, Azri FA. Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxins: occurrence, detection, and identification in raw peanuts and peanut-based products along the supply chain. Front Microbiol 2019;10:2602.
13. Yunes NBS, Oliveira RC, Reis TA, Baquião AC, Rocha LO, Correa B. Effect of temperature on growth, gene expression, and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus nomius isolated from Brazil nuts. Mycotoxin Res 2020 36:173-180.
14. Rahmani A, Soleimany F, Hosseini H, Nateghi L. Survey on the occurrence of aflatoxins in rice from different provinces of Iran. Food Addit Contam Part B Surveill 2011;4:185-190.
15. Amiri AH, Nateghi L, Zand N. Investigation of the ability of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus plantarum on the reduction of aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone in dough and toast bread. Iran J Microbiol 2025;17:328-341.
16. Hosseiny M, Nateghi L. Modern methods employed to reduce aflatoxin in milk and dairy products in the past decade. Iranian J Chem Chem Eng 2025;44:310-324.
17. Huong BTM, Tuyen LD, Madsen H, Brimer L, Friis H, Dalsgaard A. Total dietary intake and health risks associated with exposure to aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and fumonisins of children in Lao Cai Province, Vietnam. Toxins 2019 11:638.
18. Streit E, Naehrer K, Rodrigues I, Schatzmayr G. Mycotoxin occurrence in feed and feed raw materials worldwide: long-term analysis with special focus on Europe and Asia. J Sci Food Agric 2013 93:2892-2899.
19. Mahato DK, Lee KE, Kamle M, Devi S, Dewangan KN, Kumar P, et al. Aflatoxins in food and feed: an overview on prevalence, detection and control strategies. Front Microbiol 2019;10:2266.
20. Adhikari M, Isaac EL, Paterson RRM, Maslin MA. A review of potential impacts of climate change on coffee cultivation and mycotoxigenic fungi. Microorganisms 2020;8:1625.
21. Marroquín-Cardona AG, Johnson NM, Phillips TD, Hayes AW. Mycotoxins in a changing global environment: a review. Food Chem Toxicol 2014 69:220-230.
22. Eskola M, Kos G, Elliott CT, Hajšlová J, Mayar S, Krska R. Worldwide contamination of food crops with mycotoxins: validity of the widely cited FAO estimate of 25%. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020;60:2773-2789.
23. Jiang Y, Jolly PE, Ellis WO, Wang JS, Phillips TD, Williams JH. Aflatoxin B1–albumin adduct levels and cellular immune status in Ghanaians. Int Immunol 2005 17:807-814.
24. Huong BTM, Tuyen LD, Do TT, Madsen H, Brimer L, Dalsgaard A. Aflatoxins and fumonisins in rice and maize staple cereals in northern Vietnam and dietary exposure in different ethnic groups. Food Control 2016;70:191-200.
25. Heussner A, Bingle L. Comparative ochratoxin toxicity: a review of the available data. Toxins 2015;7:4253-4282.
26. Samson RA, Visagie CM, Houbraken J, Hong SB, Hubka V, Klaassen CHW, et al. Phylogeny, identification and nomenclature of the genus Aspergillus. Stud Mycol 2014;78:141-173.
27. Daliri A, Shams-Ghahfarokhi M, Razzaghi-Abyaneh M. Detection of aflatoxin B1-producing Aspergillus flavus strains from pistachio orchard soils in Iran by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Curr Med Mycol 2023;9:1-7.
28. De Saeger S. Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2011. p.456.
29. Farzaneh M, Shi ZQ, Ghassempour A, Sedaghat N, Ahmadzadeh M, Mirabolfathy M, et al. Aflatoxin B1 degradation by Bacillus subtilis UTBSP1 isolated from pistachio nuts of Iran. Food Control 2012 23:100-106.
30. Kumar A, Pathak H, Bhadauria S, Sudan J. Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes, detection, and management: a review. Food Prod Process Nutr 2021;3:17.
31. Saif-Ur-Rahman KM, Hasan M, Hossain S, Shafique S, Khalequzzaman M, Haseen F, et al. Non-pharmacological interventions for the prevention of hypertension in low-income and middle-income countries: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2018;8(5):e020724.
32. Shah HU, Simpson JT, Alam S, Khattak AS, Perveen S. Mould incidence and mycotoxin contamination in maize kernels from Swat Valley, North West Frontier Province of Pakistan. Food Chem Toxicol 2010 48:1111 1106.
33. Sharma S, Joshi DR, Poudel P, Sharma S, Karki TB, Tuladhar R. Antifungal activity of Bacillus species isolated from soil samples of Nepal against aflatoxin producing Aspergillus spp. J Inst Sci Technol 2025;30:231-236.
34. Lamichhane A, Regmi S, Pandit K, Upadhaya S, Acharya J, Koirala S, et al. Identification of fungal pathogens among COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 cases in Bhaktapur Hospital, Nepal. BMC Res Notes 2024;17:347.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 18 No 1 (2026) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijm.v18i1.20942 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus Cereals Food safety | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Sharma S, Joshi D, Poudel P, Sharma S, Karki T, Tuladhar R. Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus from food samples in Nepal. Iran J Microbiol. 2026;18(1):165-171.
