Outbreaks of human monkeypox during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review for healthcare professionals
,
Abstract
The ongoing 2022 multicountry monkeypox epidemic has drawn worldwide attention. Human monkeypox is a virus that spreads from animals to humans. It is an endemic disease in the rain forests of Central and West Africa. However, the disease recently emerged in India, and also in United States through imported wild rodents from Africa, even though the world is still struggling to escape from the clutches of the COVID-19 pandemic. Monkeypox is one of the contagious zoonotic diseases caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), transmitted to humans by direct contact with an infected person or animal or contact with virus-contaminated material. Its lesions are similar to smallpox in humans with various medical complications including flu-like symptoms, fever, malaise, back pain, headache, and a characteristic rash. Public health experts around the world are very concerned about the rapid spread of the infection, which has intensified efforts to find the source and cause of this phenomenon. Several viral infections with epidemic potential threaten global health security. Early recognition of cases and timely intervention of potential transmission chains are necessary to contain further outbreaks. At this early stage of monkeypox outbreaks, the current review provides updated information on the current worldwide monkeypox outbreak status, disease aetiology, clinical presentation, therapy, and preventive measures worldwide. Our review will also provide useful information to health professionals and the general public.
1. Shafaati M, Zandi M. Monkeypox virus neurological manifestations in comparison to other orthopoxviruses. Travel Med Infect Dis 2022; 49: 102414.
2. Shafaati M, Zandi M, Choudhary OP. Monkeypox virus crosstalk with HIV; where do we stand now? Int J Surg 2022; 105: 106897.
3. Konings F, Perkins MD, Kuhn JH, Pallen MJ, Alm EJ, Archer BN, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Interest and Concern naming scheme conducive for global discourse. Nat Microbiol 2021; 6: 821-823.
4. World Health Organization. Best Practices for the Naming of New Human Infectious Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
5. Perez Duque M, Ribeiro S, Martins JV, Casaca P, Leite PP, Tavares M, et al. Ongoing monkeypox virus outbreak, Portugal, 29 April to 23 May 2022. Euro Surveill 2022; 27: 2200424.
6. Lai C-C, Wang C-Y, Hsueh P-R. Co-infections among patients with COVID-19: the need for combination therapy with non-anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents? J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2020; 53: 505-512.
7. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16(2): e0010141.
8. Multi-country monkeypox outbreak: situation update. Who int 2022. Available from:
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON393
9. Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: Infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses 2020; 12: 1257.
10. Knipe DM, Cliffe, A. Chromatin control of herpes simplex virus lytic and latent infection. Nat Rev Microbiol 2008;6: 211-221.
11. McFadden G. Poxvirus tropism. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005; 3: 201-213.
12. Oliveira GP, Rodrigues RAL, Lima MT, Drumond BP, Abrahão JS. Poxvirus host range genes and virus-host spectrum: A critical review. Viruses 2017; 9: 331.
13. Shchelkunov SN, Marennikova SS, Moyer RW. Orthopoxiruses Pathogenic to Humans. New York, NY: Springer; 2005.
14. Meyer H, Ehmann R, Smith GL. Smallpox in the Post-Eradication Era. Viruses 2020; 12: 138.
15. Haller SL, Peng C, McFadden G, Rothenburg S. Poxviruses and the evolution of host range and virulence. Infect Genet Evol 2014; 21: 15-40.
16. Namdar AB, Keikha M. The global reemergence of human Monkeypox; is mass vaccination essential? Vacunas 2022; 23: 245-246.
17. Moss B. Poxvirus cell entry: how many proteins does it take? Viruses 2012; 4: 688-707.
18. Moss B. Poxvirus DNA replication. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2013, 5: a010199.
19. Tolonen N, Doglio L, Schleich S, Krijnse Locker J. Vaccinia virus DNA replication occurs in endoplasmic reticulum-enclosed cytoplasmic mini-nuclei. Mol Biol Cell 2001; 12: 2031-2046.
20. Kieser Q, Noyce RS, Shenouda M, Lin YJ, Evans DH. Cytoplasmic factories, virus assembly, and DNA replication kinetics collectively constrain the formation of poxvirus recombinants. PLoS One 2020; 15(1): e0228028.
21. Katsafanas GC, Moss B. Colocalization of transcription and translation within cytoplasmic poxvirus factories coordinates viral expression and subjugates host functions. Cell Host Microbe 2007; 2: 221-228.
22. Sklenovská N, Van Ranst M. Emergence of Monkeypox as the most important Orthopoxvirus infection in humans. Front Public Health 2018; 6: 241.
23. Sale TA, Melski JW, Stratman EJ. Monkeypox: an epidemiologic and clinical comparison of African and US disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 55: 478-481.
24. Ladnyi ID, Jezek Z, Fenner F, Henderson DA, Arita I. Smallpox and its Eradication Chapter: Human Monkeypox and Other Poxvirus Infections of Man. Geneva: World Health Organization (1988).
25. Reynolds MG, McCollum AM, Nguete B, Shongo Lushima R, Petersen BW. Improving the care and treatment of monkeypox patients in low-resource settings: applying evidence from contemporary biomedical and smallpox biodefense research. Viruses 2017; 9: 380.
26. Essbauer S, Pfeffer M, Meyer H. Zoonotic poxviruses. Vet Microbiol 2010; 140: 229- 236.
27. Mauldin MR, McCollum AM, Nakazawa YJ, Mandra A, Whitehouse ER, Davidson W, et al. Exportation of Monkeypox virus from the African continent. J Infect Dis 2022; 225: 1367-1376.
28. Monkeypox. Who.int. 2022. Available from:
https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/monkeypox
29. Yinka-Ogunleye A, Aruna O, Ogoina D, Aworabhi N, Eteng W, Badaru S, et al. Reemergence of Human Monkeypox in Nigeria, 2017. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 24: 1149-1151.
30. Multi-country outbreak of monkeypox, External situation report #2 - 25 July 2022. Who.int. 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/multi-country-outbreak-of-monkeypox--external-situation-report--2---25-july-2022
31. Non-endemic countries record first monkeypox deaths. CIDRAP. 2022. Available from: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2022/08/non-endemic-countries-record-first-monkeypox-deaths
32. Meyer H, Perrichot M, Stemmler M, Emmerich P, Schmitz H, Varaine F, et al. Outbreaks of disease suspected of being due to human monkeypox virus infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2001. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 2919-2921.
33. Singhal T, Kabra SK,. Lodha R. Monkeypox: A Review. Indian J Pediatr 2022; 89:955-960.
34. Simpson K, Heymann D, Brown CS, Edmunds WJ, Elsgaard J, Fine P, et al. Human monkeypox - After 40 years, an unintended consequence of smallpox eradication. Vaccine 2020; 38: 5077-5081.
35. Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13(10): e0007791.
36. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, Steffen R. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16(2):e0010141.
37. CDC. 2022 U.s. monkeypox outbreak. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available from:
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/response/2022/index.html
38. Farahat RA, Abdelaal A, Shah J, Ghozy S, Sah R, Bonilla-Aldana DK, et al. Monkeypox outbreaks during COVID-19 pandemic: are we looking at an independent phenomenon or an overlapping pandemic? Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2022; 21: 26.
39. Mbala PK, Huggins JW, Riu-Rovira T, Ahuka SM, Mulembakani P, Rimoin AW, et al. Maternal and fetal outcomes among pregnant women with human Monkeypox infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo. J Infect Dis 2017; 216: 824-828.
40. Ilic I, Zivanovic Macuzic I, Ilic M. Global Outbreak of Human Monkeypox in 2022: Update of Epidemiology. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7: 264.
41. Parker S, Buller RM. A review of experimental and natural infections of animals with monkeypox virus between 1958 and 2012. Future virol 2013; 8: 129-157.
42. Dou YM, Yuan H, Tian HW. Monkeypox virus: past and present. World J Pediatr 2022;1-7.
43. Seang S, Burrel S, Todesco E, Leducq V, Monsel G, Le Pluart D, et al. Evidence of human-to-dog transmission of monkeypox virus. Lancet 2022; 400: 658-659.
44. Angelo KM, Petersen BW, Hamer DH, Schwartz E, Brunette G. Monkeypox transmission among international travellers-serious monkey business? J Travel Med 2019; 26: taz002.
45. Kaler J, Hussain A, Flores G, Kheiri S, Desrosiers D. Monkeypox: A comprehensive review of transmission, pathogenesis, and manifestation. Cureus 2022; 14(7): e26531.
46. Grant R, Nguyen LL, Breban R. Modelling human-to-human transmission of monkeypox. Bull World Health Organ 2020; 98: 638-640.
47. ECDC releases first update to its Rapid Risk Assessment on the monkeypox outbreak. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 2022. Available from: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/news-events/ecdc-releases-first-update-its-rapid-risk-assessment-monkeypox-outbreak#:~:text=MonkeypoxmultiDcountryoutbreakDfirstupdate,-RiskassessmentD8&text=nonDendemiccountries.-,TwentyDsixEuropeanUnionFEuropeanEconomicArea(EUF,casesreportedworldwidein2022
48. Monkeypox - United Kingdom of great Britain and northern Ireland. Who.int. 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON383
49. Multi-jurisdictional Monkeypox outbreak 2022 -what we know so far. Public Health Ontario. 2022. Available from: https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/Documents/M/2022/wwksf-multi-jurisdictional-monkeypox-outbreak-2022.pdf?sc_lang=en
50. Monkeypox: background information. Gov.uk. 2022. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/monkeypox
51. Breman JG, Henderson DA. Diagnosis and management of smallpox. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1300-1308.
52. Huhn GD, Bauer AM, Yorita K, Graham MB, Sejvar J, Likos A, et al. Clinical characteristics of human monkeypox, and risk factors for severe disease. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1742-1751.
53. Antinori A, Mazzotta V, Vita S, Carletti F, Tacconi D, Lapini LE, et al. Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of four cases of monkeypox support transmission through sexual contact, Italy, May 2022. Euro Surveill 2022; 27: 2200421.
54. Monkeypox, COVID-19 & Other Global Health Issues Virtual Press conference transcript - 27 July 2022. Who.int. 2022. Available from:
https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/monkeypox--covid-19---other-global-health-issues-virtual-press-conference-transcript---27-july-2022
55. Kumar N, Acharya A, Gendelman HE, Byrareddy SN. The 2022 outbreak and the pathobiology of the monkeypox virus. J Autoimmun 2022;131:102855.
56. Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human Monkeypox: Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33: 1027-1043.
57. Jain N, Lansiaux E, Simanis R. The new face of monkeypox virus: an emerging global emergency. New Microbes New Infect 2022; 47: 100989.
58. McCollum AM, Damon IK. Human monkeypox. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58: 260-267.
59. Reynolds MG, Mccollum AM, Nguete B, Shongo Lushima R, Petersen BW. Improving the care and treatment of monkey- pox patients in low-resource settings: applying evidence from contemporary biomedical and smallpox biodefense research. Viruses 2017; 9: 380.
60. Technical report: Multi-national Monkeypox outbreak, United States, 2022. CDC.gov. Available from:
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/clinicians/technical-report.html
61. Adler H, Gould S, Hine P, Snell LB, Wong W, Houlihan CF, et al. Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK. Lancet Infect Dis 2022; 22: 1153-1162.
62. Adalja A, Inglesby T. A novel international Monkeypox outbreak. Ann Intern Med 2022; 175: 1175-1176.
63. Grosenbach DW, Honeychurch K, Rose EA. Oral tecovirimat for the treatment of smallpox. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 44-53.
64. Nalca A, Rimoin AW, Bavari S, Whitehouse CA. Reemergence of monkeypox: prevalence, diagnostics, and countermeasures. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1765-1771.
65. Wittek R. Vaccinia immune globulin: current policies, preparedness, and product safety and efficacy. Int J Infect Dis 2006; 10: 193-201.
66. Poxvirus. CDC.gov. 2020. Available from:
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/
67. Earl PL, Americo JL, Wyatt LS, Eller LA, Whitbeck JC, Cohen GH, et al. Immunogenicity of a highly attenuated MVA smallpox vaccine and protection against monkeypox. Nature 2004; 428: 182-185.
68. Earl PL, Americo JL, Wyatt LS, Espenshade O, Bassler J, Gong K, et al. Rapid protection in a monkeypox model by a single injection of a replication-deficient vaccinia virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105: 10889-10894.
69. Stittelaar KJ, Van Amerongen G, Kondova I, Kuiken T, Van Lavieren RF, Pistoor FHM, et al. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara protects macaques against respiratory challenge with monkeypox virus. J Virol 2005; 79: 7845-7851.
70. Edghill-Smith Y, Bray M, Whitehouse CA, Miller D, Mucker E, Manischewitz J, et al. Smallpox vaccine does not protect macaques with AIDS from a lethal monkeypox virus challenge. J Infect Dis 2005; 191: 372-381.
71. Titanji BK, Tegomoh B, Nematollahi S, Konomos M, Kulkarni PA. Monkeypox: A contemporary review for healthcare professionals. Open Forum Infect Dis 2022; 9: ofac310.
72. Saijo M, Ami Y, Suzaki Y, Nagata N, Iwata N, Hasegawa H, et al. LC16m8, a highly attenuated vaccinia virus vaccine lacking expression of the membrane protein B5R, protects monkeys from monkeypox. J Virol 2006; 80: 5179-5188.
73. Kenner J, Cameron F, Empig C, Jobes DV, Gurwith M. LC16m8: an attenuated smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 2006; 24: 7009-7022.
74. Delaune D, Iseni F. Drug development against smallpox: Present and future. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64(4): e01683-19.
75. Hutson CL, Kondas AV, Mauldin MR, Doty JB, Grossi IM, Morgan CN, et al. Pharmacokinetics and efficacy of a potential smallpox therapeutic, brincidofovir, in a lethal Monkeypox virus animal model. mSphere 2021; 6(1): e00927-20.
76. Johri N, Kumar D, Nagar P, Maurya A, Vengat M, & Jain P. (2022). Clinical manifestations of human monkeypox infection and implications for outbreak strategy. Health sciences review (Oxford, England), 5, 100055; 5: 6-7.
77. Center for Drug Evaluation, Research. Various news & events drug topics. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA; 2022. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/news-events-human-drugs/
78. CDC. Monkeypox. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/
79. CIDRAP. FDA approves VIG for smallpox shot complications. Available at: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2005/02/fda-approves-vig-smallpox-shot-complications. 2022.
80. Hutin YJ, Williams RJ, Malfait P, Pebody R, Loparev VN, Ropp SL, et al. Outbreak of human monkeypox, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1996 to 1997. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7: 434-438.
81. Eto A, Saito T, Yokote H, Kurane I, Kanatani Y. Recent advances in the study of live attenuated cell-cultured smallpox vaccine LC16m8. Vaccine 2015; 33: 6106-6111.
82. Questions and answers: Quarantine and euthanasia of animals affected by the Monkeypox outbreak CDC.gov. 2003. Available from: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/25765/cdc_25765_DS1.pdf
83. CDC. Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/prevention.html
2. Shafaati M, Zandi M, Choudhary OP. Monkeypox virus crosstalk with HIV; where do we stand now? Int J Surg 2022; 105: 106897.
3. Konings F, Perkins MD, Kuhn JH, Pallen MJ, Alm EJ, Archer BN, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Interest and Concern naming scheme conducive for global discourse. Nat Microbiol 2021; 6: 821-823.
4. World Health Organization. Best Practices for the Naming of New Human Infectious Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
5. Perez Duque M, Ribeiro S, Martins JV, Casaca P, Leite PP, Tavares M, et al. Ongoing monkeypox virus outbreak, Portugal, 29 April to 23 May 2022. Euro Surveill 2022; 27: 2200424.
6. Lai C-C, Wang C-Y, Hsueh P-R. Co-infections among patients with COVID-19: the need for combination therapy with non-anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents? J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2020; 53: 505-512.
7. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16(2): e0010141.
8. Multi-country monkeypox outbreak: situation update. Who int 2022. Available from:
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON393
9. Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: Infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses 2020; 12: 1257.
10. Knipe DM, Cliffe, A. Chromatin control of herpes simplex virus lytic and latent infection. Nat Rev Microbiol 2008;6: 211-221.
11. McFadden G. Poxvirus tropism. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005; 3: 201-213.
12. Oliveira GP, Rodrigues RAL, Lima MT, Drumond BP, Abrahão JS. Poxvirus host range genes and virus-host spectrum: A critical review. Viruses 2017; 9: 331.
13. Shchelkunov SN, Marennikova SS, Moyer RW. Orthopoxiruses Pathogenic to Humans. New York, NY: Springer; 2005.
14. Meyer H, Ehmann R, Smith GL. Smallpox in the Post-Eradication Era. Viruses 2020; 12: 138.
15. Haller SL, Peng C, McFadden G, Rothenburg S. Poxviruses and the evolution of host range and virulence. Infect Genet Evol 2014; 21: 15-40.
16. Namdar AB, Keikha M. The global reemergence of human Monkeypox; is mass vaccination essential? Vacunas 2022; 23: 245-246.
17. Moss B. Poxvirus cell entry: how many proteins does it take? Viruses 2012; 4: 688-707.
18. Moss B. Poxvirus DNA replication. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2013, 5: a010199.
19. Tolonen N, Doglio L, Schleich S, Krijnse Locker J. Vaccinia virus DNA replication occurs in endoplasmic reticulum-enclosed cytoplasmic mini-nuclei. Mol Biol Cell 2001; 12: 2031-2046.
20. Kieser Q, Noyce RS, Shenouda M, Lin YJ, Evans DH. Cytoplasmic factories, virus assembly, and DNA replication kinetics collectively constrain the formation of poxvirus recombinants. PLoS One 2020; 15(1): e0228028.
21. Katsafanas GC, Moss B. Colocalization of transcription and translation within cytoplasmic poxvirus factories coordinates viral expression and subjugates host functions. Cell Host Microbe 2007; 2: 221-228.
22. Sklenovská N, Van Ranst M. Emergence of Monkeypox as the most important Orthopoxvirus infection in humans. Front Public Health 2018; 6: 241.
23. Sale TA, Melski JW, Stratman EJ. Monkeypox: an epidemiologic and clinical comparison of African and US disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 55: 478-481.
24. Ladnyi ID, Jezek Z, Fenner F, Henderson DA, Arita I. Smallpox and its Eradication Chapter: Human Monkeypox and Other Poxvirus Infections of Man. Geneva: World Health Organization (1988).
25. Reynolds MG, McCollum AM, Nguete B, Shongo Lushima R, Petersen BW. Improving the care and treatment of monkeypox patients in low-resource settings: applying evidence from contemporary biomedical and smallpox biodefense research. Viruses 2017; 9: 380.
26. Essbauer S, Pfeffer M, Meyer H. Zoonotic poxviruses. Vet Microbiol 2010; 140: 229- 236.
27. Mauldin MR, McCollum AM, Nakazawa YJ, Mandra A, Whitehouse ER, Davidson W, et al. Exportation of Monkeypox virus from the African continent. J Infect Dis 2022; 225: 1367-1376.
28. Monkeypox. Who.int. 2022. Available from:
https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/monkeypox
29. Yinka-Ogunleye A, Aruna O, Ogoina D, Aworabhi N, Eteng W, Badaru S, et al. Reemergence of Human Monkeypox in Nigeria, 2017. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 24: 1149-1151.
30. Multi-country outbreak of monkeypox, External situation report #2 - 25 July 2022. Who.int. 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/multi-country-outbreak-of-monkeypox--external-situation-report--2---25-july-2022
31. Non-endemic countries record first monkeypox deaths. CIDRAP. 2022. Available from: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2022/08/non-endemic-countries-record-first-monkeypox-deaths
32. Meyer H, Perrichot M, Stemmler M, Emmerich P, Schmitz H, Varaine F, et al. Outbreaks of disease suspected of being due to human monkeypox virus infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2001. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 2919-2921.
33. Singhal T, Kabra SK,. Lodha R. Monkeypox: A Review. Indian J Pediatr 2022; 89:955-960.
34. Simpson K, Heymann D, Brown CS, Edmunds WJ, Elsgaard J, Fine P, et al. Human monkeypox - After 40 years, an unintended consequence of smallpox eradication. Vaccine 2020; 38: 5077-5081.
35. Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13(10): e0007791.
36. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, Steffen R. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16(2):e0010141.
37. CDC. 2022 U.s. monkeypox outbreak. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available from:
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/response/2022/index.html
38. Farahat RA, Abdelaal A, Shah J, Ghozy S, Sah R, Bonilla-Aldana DK, et al. Monkeypox outbreaks during COVID-19 pandemic: are we looking at an independent phenomenon or an overlapping pandemic? Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2022; 21: 26.
39. Mbala PK, Huggins JW, Riu-Rovira T, Ahuka SM, Mulembakani P, Rimoin AW, et al. Maternal and fetal outcomes among pregnant women with human Monkeypox infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo. J Infect Dis 2017; 216: 824-828.
40. Ilic I, Zivanovic Macuzic I, Ilic M. Global Outbreak of Human Monkeypox in 2022: Update of Epidemiology. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7: 264.
41. Parker S, Buller RM. A review of experimental and natural infections of animals with monkeypox virus between 1958 and 2012. Future virol 2013; 8: 129-157.
42. Dou YM, Yuan H, Tian HW. Monkeypox virus: past and present. World J Pediatr 2022;1-7.
43. Seang S, Burrel S, Todesco E, Leducq V, Monsel G, Le Pluart D, et al. Evidence of human-to-dog transmission of monkeypox virus. Lancet 2022; 400: 658-659.
44. Angelo KM, Petersen BW, Hamer DH, Schwartz E, Brunette G. Monkeypox transmission among international travellers-serious monkey business? J Travel Med 2019; 26: taz002.
45. Kaler J, Hussain A, Flores G, Kheiri S, Desrosiers D. Monkeypox: A comprehensive review of transmission, pathogenesis, and manifestation. Cureus 2022; 14(7): e26531.
46. Grant R, Nguyen LL, Breban R. Modelling human-to-human transmission of monkeypox. Bull World Health Organ 2020; 98: 638-640.
47. ECDC releases first update to its Rapid Risk Assessment on the monkeypox outbreak. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 2022. Available from: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/news-events/ecdc-releases-first-update-its-rapid-risk-assessment-monkeypox-outbreak#:~:text=MonkeypoxmultiDcountryoutbreakDfirstupdate,-RiskassessmentD8&text=nonDendemiccountries.-,TwentyDsixEuropeanUnionFEuropeanEconomicArea(EUF,casesreportedworldwidein2022
48. Monkeypox - United Kingdom of great Britain and northern Ireland. Who.int. 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON383
49. Multi-jurisdictional Monkeypox outbreak 2022 -what we know so far. Public Health Ontario. 2022. Available from: https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/Documents/M/2022/wwksf-multi-jurisdictional-monkeypox-outbreak-2022.pdf?sc_lang=en
50. Monkeypox: background information. Gov.uk. 2022. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/monkeypox
51. Breman JG, Henderson DA. Diagnosis and management of smallpox. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1300-1308.
52. Huhn GD, Bauer AM, Yorita K, Graham MB, Sejvar J, Likos A, et al. Clinical characteristics of human monkeypox, and risk factors for severe disease. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1742-1751.
53. Antinori A, Mazzotta V, Vita S, Carletti F, Tacconi D, Lapini LE, et al. Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of four cases of monkeypox support transmission through sexual contact, Italy, May 2022. Euro Surveill 2022; 27: 2200421.
54. Monkeypox, COVID-19 & Other Global Health Issues Virtual Press conference transcript - 27 July 2022. Who.int. 2022. Available from:
https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/monkeypox--covid-19---other-global-health-issues-virtual-press-conference-transcript---27-july-2022
55. Kumar N, Acharya A, Gendelman HE, Byrareddy SN. The 2022 outbreak and the pathobiology of the monkeypox virus. J Autoimmun 2022;131:102855.
56. Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human Monkeypox: Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33: 1027-1043.
57. Jain N, Lansiaux E, Simanis R. The new face of monkeypox virus: an emerging global emergency. New Microbes New Infect 2022; 47: 100989.
58. McCollum AM, Damon IK. Human monkeypox. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58: 260-267.
59. Reynolds MG, Mccollum AM, Nguete B, Shongo Lushima R, Petersen BW. Improving the care and treatment of monkey- pox patients in low-resource settings: applying evidence from contemporary biomedical and smallpox biodefense research. Viruses 2017; 9: 380.
60. Technical report: Multi-national Monkeypox outbreak, United States, 2022. CDC.gov. Available from:
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/clinicians/technical-report.html
61. Adler H, Gould S, Hine P, Snell LB, Wong W, Houlihan CF, et al. Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK. Lancet Infect Dis 2022; 22: 1153-1162.
62. Adalja A, Inglesby T. A novel international Monkeypox outbreak. Ann Intern Med 2022; 175: 1175-1176.
63. Grosenbach DW, Honeychurch K, Rose EA. Oral tecovirimat for the treatment of smallpox. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 44-53.
64. Nalca A, Rimoin AW, Bavari S, Whitehouse CA. Reemergence of monkeypox: prevalence, diagnostics, and countermeasures. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1765-1771.
65. Wittek R. Vaccinia immune globulin: current policies, preparedness, and product safety and efficacy. Int J Infect Dis 2006; 10: 193-201.
66. Poxvirus. CDC.gov. 2020. Available from:
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/
67. Earl PL, Americo JL, Wyatt LS, Eller LA, Whitbeck JC, Cohen GH, et al. Immunogenicity of a highly attenuated MVA smallpox vaccine and protection against monkeypox. Nature 2004; 428: 182-185.
68. Earl PL, Americo JL, Wyatt LS, Espenshade O, Bassler J, Gong K, et al. Rapid protection in a monkeypox model by a single injection of a replication-deficient vaccinia virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105: 10889-10894.
69. Stittelaar KJ, Van Amerongen G, Kondova I, Kuiken T, Van Lavieren RF, Pistoor FHM, et al. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara protects macaques against respiratory challenge with monkeypox virus. J Virol 2005; 79: 7845-7851.
70. Edghill-Smith Y, Bray M, Whitehouse CA, Miller D, Mucker E, Manischewitz J, et al. Smallpox vaccine does not protect macaques with AIDS from a lethal monkeypox virus challenge. J Infect Dis 2005; 191: 372-381.
71. Titanji BK, Tegomoh B, Nematollahi S, Konomos M, Kulkarni PA. Monkeypox: A contemporary review for healthcare professionals. Open Forum Infect Dis 2022; 9: ofac310.
72. Saijo M, Ami Y, Suzaki Y, Nagata N, Iwata N, Hasegawa H, et al. LC16m8, a highly attenuated vaccinia virus vaccine lacking expression of the membrane protein B5R, protects monkeys from monkeypox. J Virol 2006; 80: 5179-5188.
73. Kenner J, Cameron F, Empig C, Jobes DV, Gurwith M. LC16m8: an attenuated smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 2006; 24: 7009-7022.
74. Delaune D, Iseni F. Drug development against smallpox: Present and future. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64(4): e01683-19.
75. Hutson CL, Kondas AV, Mauldin MR, Doty JB, Grossi IM, Morgan CN, et al. Pharmacokinetics and efficacy of a potential smallpox therapeutic, brincidofovir, in a lethal Monkeypox virus animal model. mSphere 2021; 6(1): e00927-20.
76. Johri N, Kumar D, Nagar P, Maurya A, Vengat M, & Jain P. (2022). Clinical manifestations of human monkeypox infection and implications for outbreak strategy. Health sciences review (Oxford, England), 5, 100055; 5: 6-7.
77. Center for Drug Evaluation, Research. Various news & events drug topics. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA; 2022. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/news-events-human-drugs/
78. CDC. Monkeypox. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/
79. CIDRAP. FDA approves VIG for smallpox shot complications. Available at: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2005/02/fda-approves-vig-smallpox-shot-complications. 2022.
80. Hutin YJ, Williams RJ, Malfait P, Pebody R, Loparev VN, Ropp SL, et al. Outbreak of human monkeypox, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1996 to 1997. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7: 434-438.
81. Eto A, Saito T, Yokote H, Kurane I, Kanatani Y. Recent advances in the study of live attenuated cell-cultured smallpox vaccine LC16m8. Vaccine 2015; 33: 6106-6111.
82. Questions and answers: Quarantine and euthanasia of animals affected by the Monkeypox outbreak CDC.gov. 2003. Available from: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/25765/cdc_25765_DS1.pdf
83. CDC. Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/prevention.html
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 14 No 6 (2022) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijm.v14i6.11252 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Orthopoxvirus; Monkeypox; Human; Re-emergence; Vaccination; Diagnosis; Treatment; Prevention; Healthcare professionals; Outbreak | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Nagarajan P, Howlader A, Port Louis LR, Rangarajalu K. Outbreaks of human monkeypox during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review for healthcare professionals. Iran J Microbiol. 2022;14(6):778-791.
