The Mpox, serious menace, or paper tiger?
Abstract
One of the most horrible diseases in history, Smallpox is caused by the Variola from Poxvirus family, has caused great morbidity and mortality along the way since it was eradicated in the 20th century. During and after the eradication program for Variola, other Poxviruses such as the Monkeypox (Mpox) virus, which causes a smallpox-like disease, became flagrant. With its long range of enzymes and proteins, poxviruses are effectively resisting hostile immune system attacks and disrupting cell signaling pathways. After Smallpox vaccination, cross-reaction immunity develops between Orthopoxviruses. Mpox is indeed an African endemic virus; however, increasing and emerging cases have been reported globally in recent years. According to Smallpox eradication in the 1970s and vaccination ceasing, nowadays centerpieces of the world population are vulnerable to Mpox virus. Our knowledge of Mpox is severely limited due to the lack of regular surveillance methods. Increasing education, boosting surveillance, and developing diagnostic competence is the most significant policies for improving identification, treatment, and restricting further virus spread. So Mpox can play a double-edge blade role in which without monitoring and increasing awareness it could be horrific and with public awareness and boosting surveillance it could be a paper tiger. This article reviewed previous reports about the Mpox merge from PubMed and google scholar from 2018 to June 2022.
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2. Lefkowitz EJ, Wang C, Upton C. Poxviruses: past, present and future. Virus Res 2006; 117: 105-118.
3. Walker PJ, Siddell SG, Lefkowitz EJ, Mushegian AR, Adriaenssens EM, Alfenas-Zerbini P, et al. Recent changes to virus taxonomy ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2022). Arch Virol 2022; 167: 2429-2440.
4. Babkin IV, Babkina IN. The origin of the variola virus. Viruses 2015; 7: 1100-1112.
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6. Kumar V. Vaccines: the History and Future: IntechOpen; 2019.
7. Meyer H, Ehmann R, Smith GL. Smallpox in the Post-Eradication Era. Viruses 2020; 12: 138.
8. Jacobs BL, Langland JO, Kibler KV, Denzler KL, White SD, Holechek SA, et al. Vaccinia virus vaccines: past, present and future. Antiviral Res 2009; 84: 1-13.
9. Legrand FA, Verardi PH, Chan KS, Peng Y, Jones LA, Yilma TD. Vaccinia viruses with a serpin gene deletion and expressing IFN-gamma induce potent immune responses without detectable replication in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102: 2940-2945.
10. Vijaysri S, Jentarra G, Heck MC, Mercer AA, McInnes CJ, Jacobs BL. Vaccinia viruses with mutations in the E3L gene as potential replication-competent, attenuated vaccines: intra-nasal vaccination. Vaccine 2008; 26: 664-676.
11. Berthet N, Descorps-Declère S, Besombes C, Curaudeau M, Nkili Meyong AA, Selekon B, et al. Genomic history of human monkey pox infections in the Central African Republic between 2001 and 2018. Sci Rep 2021; 11: 13085.
12. Cohen J. Is an old virus up to new tricks? Science 1997; 277: 312-313.
13. Mwanbal PT, Tshioko KF, Moudi A, Mukinda V, Mwema GN, Messinger D, et al. Human monkeypox in Kasai Oriental, Zaire (1996-1997). Euro Surveill 1997; 2: 33-35.
14. Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero N, Drew C, Zaki SR, Nagy T, et al. Comparison of Monkeypox virus clade kinetics and pathology within the prairie dog animal model using a serial sacrifice study design. Biomed Res Int 2015; 2015: 965710.
15. Kugelman JR, Johnston SC, Mulembakani PM, Kisalu N, Lee MS, Koroleva G, et al. Genomic variability of monkeypox virus among humans, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis 2014; 20: 232-239.
16. Shchelkunov SN, Totmenin AV, Babkin IV, Safronov PF, Ryazankina OI, Petrov NA, et al. Human monkeypox and smallpox viruses: genomic comparison. FEBS Lett 2001; 509: 66-70.
17. Meiser A, Sancho C, Krijnse Locker J. Plasma membrane budding as an alternative release mechanism of the extracellular enveloped form of vaccinia virus from HeLa cells. J Virol 2003; 77: 9931-9942.
18. Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses 2020; 12: 1257.
19. Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM. Fields' Virology: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
20. Townsend MB, Keckler MS, Patel N, Davies DH, Felgner P, Damon IK, et al. Humoral immunity to smallpox vaccines and monkeypox virus challenge: proteomic assessment and clinical correlations. J Virol 2013; 87: 900-911.
21. Hammarlund E, Dasgupta A, Pinilla C, Norori P, Früh K, Slifka MK. Monkeypox virus evades antiviral CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses by suppressing cognate T cell activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105: 14567-14572.
22. Moore MJ, Rathish B, Zahra F. Monkeypox. in: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
23. Sklenovská N. Monkeypox Virus. In: Malik YS, Singh RK, Dhama K, editors. Animal-Origin Viral Zoonoses. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2020. p. 39-68.
24. Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero N, Weiss S, Clemmons C, Hughes CM, et al. Monkeypox disease transmission in an experimental setting: prairie dog animal model. PLoS One 2011; 6(12): e28295.
25. Formenty P, Muntasir MO, Damon I, Chowdhary V, Opoka ML, Monimart C, et al. Human monkeypox outbreak caused by novel virus belonging to Congo Basin clade, Sudan, 2005. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 16: 1539-1545.
26. Nolen LD, Osadebe L, Katomba J, Likofata J, Mukadi D, Monroe B, et al. Extended human-to-human transmission during a Monkeypox outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22: 1014-1021.
27. Kisalu NK, Mokili JL. Toward understanding the outcomes of Monkeypox infection in human pregnancy. J Infect Dis 2017; 216: 795-797.
28. Endo A, Murayama H, Abbott S, Ratnayake R, Pearson CAB, Edmunds WJ, et al. Heavy-tailed sexual contact networks and the epidemiology of monkeypox outbreak in non-endemic regions, May 2022. medRxiv, 2022.
29. Vaughan A, Aarons E, Astbury J, Brooks T, Chand M, Flegg P, et al. Human-to-human transmission of Monkeypox virus, United Kingdom, October 2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 26: 782-785.
30. Bass J, Tack DM, McCollum AM, Kabamba J, Pakuta E, Malekani J, et al. Enhancing health care worker ability to detect and care for patients with monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Int Health 2013; 5: 237-243.
31. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox—A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16(2): e0010141.
32. Dye C, Kraemer MUG. Investigating the monkeypox outbreak. BMJ 2022; 377: o1314.
33. 2022 Monkeypox Outbreak Global Map: Centers of Disease Control and prevention 2022 [Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/response/2022/world-map.html
34. Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human Monkeypox: epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33: 1027-1043.
35. Erez N, Achdout H, Milrot E, Schwartz Y, Wiener-Well Y, Paran N, et al. Diagnosis of imported Monkeypox, Israel, 2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 25: 980-983.
36. Russo AT, Grosenbach DW, Chinsangaram J, Honeychurch KM, Long PG, Lovejoy C, et al. An overview of tecovirimat for smallpox treatment and expanded anti-orthopoxvirus applications. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19: 331-344.
37. Bugert JJ, Hucke F, Zanetta P, Bassetto M, Brancale A. Antivirals in medical biodefense. Virus Genes 2020; 56: 150-167.
38. Rizk JG, Lippi G, Henry BM, Forthal DN, Rizk Y. Prevention and Treatment of Monkeypox. Drugs 2022; 82: 957-963.
39. Nuzzo JB, Borio LL, Gostin LO. The WHO declaration of Monkeypox as a global public health emergency. JAMA 2022; 328: 615-617.
40. Rao AK, Petersen BW, Whitehill F, Razeq JH, Isaacs SN, Merchlinsky MJ, et al. Use of JYNNEOS (Smallpox and Monkeypox vaccine, Live, Nonreplicating) for preexposure vaccination of persons at risk for occupational exposure to orthopoxviruses: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2022; 71: 734-742.
2. Lefkowitz EJ, Wang C, Upton C. Poxviruses: past, present and future. Virus Res 2006; 117: 105-118.
3. Walker PJ, Siddell SG, Lefkowitz EJ, Mushegian AR, Adriaenssens EM, Alfenas-Zerbini P, et al. Recent changes to virus taxonomy ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2022). Arch Virol 2022; 167: 2429-2440.
4. Babkin IV, Babkina IN. The origin of the variola virus. Viruses 2015; 7: 1100-1112.
5. Moore ZS, Seward JF, Lane JM. Smallpox. Lancet 2006; 367: 425-435.
6. Kumar V. Vaccines: the History and Future: IntechOpen; 2019.
7. Meyer H, Ehmann R, Smith GL. Smallpox in the Post-Eradication Era. Viruses 2020; 12: 138.
8. Jacobs BL, Langland JO, Kibler KV, Denzler KL, White SD, Holechek SA, et al. Vaccinia virus vaccines: past, present and future. Antiviral Res 2009; 84: 1-13.
9. Legrand FA, Verardi PH, Chan KS, Peng Y, Jones LA, Yilma TD. Vaccinia viruses with a serpin gene deletion and expressing IFN-gamma induce potent immune responses without detectable replication in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102: 2940-2945.
10. Vijaysri S, Jentarra G, Heck MC, Mercer AA, McInnes CJ, Jacobs BL. Vaccinia viruses with mutations in the E3L gene as potential replication-competent, attenuated vaccines: intra-nasal vaccination. Vaccine 2008; 26: 664-676.
11. Berthet N, Descorps-Declère S, Besombes C, Curaudeau M, Nkili Meyong AA, Selekon B, et al. Genomic history of human monkey pox infections in the Central African Republic between 2001 and 2018. Sci Rep 2021; 11: 13085.
12. Cohen J. Is an old virus up to new tricks? Science 1997; 277: 312-313.
13. Mwanbal PT, Tshioko KF, Moudi A, Mukinda V, Mwema GN, Messinger D, et al. Human monkeypox in Kasai Oriental, Zaire (1996-1997). Euro Surveill 1997; 2: 33-35.
14. Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero N, Drew C, Zaki SR, Nagy T, et al. Comparison of Monkeypox virus clade kinetics and pathology within the prairie dog animal model using a serial sacrifice study design. Biomed Res Int 2015; 2015: 965710.
15. Kugelman JR, Johnston SC, Mulembakani PM, Kisalu N, Lee MS, Koroleva G, et al. Genomic variability of monkeypox virus among humans, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis 2014; 20: 232-239.
16. Shchelkunov SN, Totmenin AV, Babkin IV, Safronov PF, Ryazankina OI, Petrov NA, et al. Human monkeypox and smallpox viruses: genomic comparison. FEBS Lett 2001; 509: 66-70.
17. Meiser A, Sancho C, Krijnse Locker J. Plasma membrane budding as an alternative release mechanism of the extracellular enveloped form of vaccinia virus from HeLa cells. J Virol 2003; 77: 9931-9942.
18. Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses 2020; 12: 1257.
19. Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM. Fields' Virology: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
20. Townsend MB, Keckler MS, Patel N, Davies DH, Felgner P, Damon IK, et al. Humoral immunity to smallpox vaccines and monkeypox virus challenge: proteomic assessment and clinical correlations. J Virol 2013; 87: 900-911.
21. Hammarlund E, Dasgupta A, Pinilla C, Norori P, Früh K, Slifka MK. Monkeypox virus evades antiviral CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses by suppressing cognate T cell activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105: 14567-14572.
22. Moore MJ, Rathish B, Zahra F. Monkeypox. in: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
23. Sklenovská N. Monkeypox Virus. In: Malik YS, Singh RK, Dhama K, editors. Animal-Origin Viral Zoonoses. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2020. p. 39-68.
24. Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero N, Weiss S, Clemmons C, Hughes CM, et al. Monkeypox disease transmission in an experimental setting: prairie dog animal model. PLoS One 2011; 6(12): e28295.
25. Formenty P, Muntasir MO, Damon I, Chowdhary V, Opoka ML, Monimart C, et al. Human monkeypox outbreak caused by novel virus belonging to Congo Basin clade, Sudan, 2005. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 16: 1539-1545.
26. Nolen LD, Osadebe L, Katomba J, Likofata J, Mukadi D, Monroe B, et al. Extended human-to-human transmission during a Monkeypox outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22: 1014-1021.
27. Kisalu NK, Mokili JL. Toward understanding the outcomes of Monkeypox infection in human pregnancy. J Infect Dis 2017; 216: 795-797.
28. Endo A, Murayama H, Abbott S, Ratnayake R, Pearson CAB, Edmunds WJ, et al. Heavy-tailed sexual contact networks and the epidemiology of monkeypox outbreak in non-endemic regions, May 2022. medRxiv, 2022.
29. Vaughan A, Aarons E, Astbury J, Brooks T, Chand M, Flegg P, et al. Human-to-human transmission of Monkeypox virus, United Kingdom, October 2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 26: 782-785.
30. Bass J, Tack DM, McCollum AM, Kabamba J, Pakuta E, Malekani J, et al. Enhancing health care worker ability to detect and care for patients with monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Int Health 2013; 5: 237-243.
31. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox—A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16(2): e0010141.
32. Dye C, Kraemer MUG. Investigating the monkeypox outbreak. BMJ 2022; 377: o1314.
33. 2022 Monkeypox Outbreak Global Map: Centers of Disease Control and prevention 2022 [Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/response/2022/world-map.html
34. Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human Monkeypox: epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33: 1027-1043.
35. Erez N, Achdout H, Milrot E, Schwartz Y, Wiener-Well Y, Paran N, et al. Diagnosis of imported Monkeypox, Israel, 2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 25: 980-983.
36. Russo AT, Grosenbach DW, Chinsangaram J, Honeychurch KM, Long PG, Lovejoy C, et al. An overview of tecovirimat for smallpox treatment and expanded anti-orthopoxvirus applications. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19: 331-344.
37. Bugert JJ, Hucke F, Zanetta P, Bassetto M, Brancale A. Antivirals in medical biodefense. Virus Genes 2020; 56: 150-167.
38. Rizk JG, Lippi G, Henry BM, Forthal DN, Rizk Y. Prevention and Treatment of Monkeypox. Drugs 2022; 82: 957-963.
39. Nuzzo JB, Borio LL, Gostin LO. The WHO declaration of Monkeypox as a global public health emergency. JAMA 2022; 328: 615-617.
40. Rao AK, Petersen BW, Whitehill F, Razeq JH, Isaacs SN, Merchlinsky MJ, et al. Use of JYNNEOS (Smallpox and Monkeypox vaccine, Live, Nonreplicating) for preexposure vaccination of persons at risk for occupational exposure to orthopoxviruses: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2022; 71: 734-742.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 14 No 6 (2022) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijm.v14i6.11251 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Monkeypox; Mpox; Variola; Poxviruses; Smallpox; Vaccinia | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Jalilian S, Bastani M-N. The Mpox, serious menace, or paper tiger?. Iran J Microbiol. 2022;14(6):770-777.
