COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome versus classical acute respiratory distress syndrome (a narrative review)
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Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the novel coronavirus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), led to the ongoing global public health crisis. Existing clinical data suggest that COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) have worse outcomes and increased risk of intensive care unit (ICU) admission. The rapid increase in the numbers of patients requiring ICU care may imply a sudden and major challenge for affected health care systems. In this narrative review, we aim to summarize current knowledge of pathophysiology, clinical and morphological characteristics of COVID-19-associated ARDS and ARDS caused by other factors (classical ARDS) as defined by Berlin criteria, and therefore to elucidate the differences, which can affect clinical management of COVID-19-associated ARDS. Fully understanding the characteristics of COVID-19-associated ARDS will help identify its early progression and tailor the treatment, leading to improved prognosis in severe cases and reduced mortality. The notable mechanisms of COVID-19-associated ARDS include severe pulmonary infiltration/edema and inflammation, leading to impaired alveolar homeostasis, alteration of pulmonary physiology resulting in pulmonary fibrosis, endothelial inflammation and vascular thrombosis. Despite some distinct differences between COVID-19-associated ARDS and classical ARDS as defined by Berlin criteria, general treatment principles, such as lung-protective ventilation and rehabilitation concepts should be applied whenever possible. At the same time, ventilatory settings for COVID-19-associated ARDS require to be adapted in individual cases, depending on respiratory mechanics, recruitability and presentation timing.
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2. Roshanshad A, Kamalipour A, Ashraf MA, Roshanshad R, Jafari S, Nazemi P, et al. The efficacy of remdesivir in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review. Iran J Microbiol 2020; 12: 376-387.
3. Belice T, Demir I. The gender differences as a risk factor in diabetic patients with COVID-19. Iran J Microbiol 2020; 12: 625-628.
4. Wu Z, Mcgoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese center for disease control and prevention. JAMA 2020; 323: 1239-1242.
5. Kyrychko YN, Blyuss KB, Brovchenko I. Mathematical modelling of the dynamics and containment of COVID-19 in Ukraine. Sci Rep 2020; 10: 19662.
6. Kamyshnyi A, Krynytska I, Matskevych V, Marushchak M, Lushchak O. Arterial hypertension as a risk comorbidity associated with COVID-19 pathology. Int J Hypertens 2020; 2020: 8019360.
7. Burki TK. Coronavirus in China. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8: 238.
8. Pfortmueller CA, Spinetti T, Urman RD, Luedi MM, Schefold JC. COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS): current knowledge on pathophysiology and ICU treatment - a narrative review. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2021; 35: 351-368.
9. Hajjar LA, Costa IBSDS, Rizk SI, Biselli B, Gomes BR, Bittar CS, et al. Intensive care management of patients with COVID-19: a practical approach. Ann Intensive Care 2021; 11: 36.
10. Thibodeau R, Jafroodifar A, Quraeshi S, Lisi M. SARS-CoV-2 infection leading to ischemic and hemorrhagic brain lesions and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Radiol Case Rep 2021; 16: 753-759.
11. Chakraborty C, Sharma AR, Sharma G, Bhattacharya M, Lee SS. SARS-CoV-2 causing pneumonia-associated respiratory disorder (COVID-19): diagnostic and proposed therapeutic options. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2020; 24: 4016-4026.
12. Li X, Ma X. Acute respiratory failure in COVID-19: is it "typical" ARDS? Crit Care 2020; 24: 198.
13. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8: 475-481.
14. Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020; 395: 514-523.
15. Phan LT, Nguyen TV, Luong QC, Nguyen TV, Nguyen HT, Le HQ, et al. Importation and human-to-human transmission of a novel coronavirus in Vietnam. N Engl J Med 2020; 382: 872-874.
16. Hashemian SR, Aliannejad R, Zarrabi M, Soleimani M, Vosough M, Hosseini SE, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells derived from perinatal tissues for treatment of critically ill COVID-19-induced ARDS patients: a case series. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12: 91.
17. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, Zhang J, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; 323: 1061-1069.
18. Arentz M, Yim E, Klaff L, Lokhandwala S, Riedo FX, Chong M, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of 21 critically Ill patients with COVID-19 in Washington state. JAMA 2020; 323: 1612-1614.
19. Hu XS, Hu CH, Zhong P, Wen YJ, Chen XY. Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome in COVID-19 patients outside Wuhan: a double-center retrospective cohort study of 197 cases in Hunan, China. World J Clin Cases 2021; 9: 344-356.
20. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Xia J, Zhou X, Xu S, et al. Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med 2020;180: 934-943.
21. Bellani G, Laffey JG, Pham T, Fan E, Brochard L, Esteban A, et al. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA 2016; 315: 788-800.
22. Richards-Belle A, Orzechowska I, Gould DW, Thomas K, Doidge JC, Mouncey PR, et al. COVID-19 in critical care: epidemiology of the first epidemic wave across England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Intensive Care Med 2020; 46: 2035-2047.
23. Arulkumaran N, Green J, Khan A, Bonnici T, Longobardo A, Singer M. Influence of respiratory and inflammatory parameters preceding intubation on survival of patients with COVID-19 ARDS- A single centre retrospective analysis. J Crit Care 2021; 62: 289-291.
24. Tang X, Du RH, Wang R, Cao TZ, Guan LL, Yang CQ, et al. Comparison of hospitalized patients with ARDS caused by COVID-19 and H1N1. Chest 2020; 158: 195-205.
25. ARDS Definition Task Force, Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, Ferguson ND, Caldwell E, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA 2012; 307: 2526-2533.
26. Yang X, Hu M, Yu Y, Zhang X, Fang M, Lian Y, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for SARS-CoV-2 acute respiratory distress syndrome: a retrospective study from Hubei, China. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 7: 611460.
27. Australia and New Zealand Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ANZ ECMO) Influenza Investigators, Davies A, Jones D, Bailey M, Beca J, Bellomo R, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for 2009 influenza A(H1N1) acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 2009; 302: 1888-1895.
28. Gibson PG, Qin L, Puah SH. COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): clinical features and differences from typical pre-COVID-19 ARDS. Med J Aust 2020; 213: 54-56 e1.
29. Mauad T, Duarte-Neto AN, da Silva LFF, de Oliveira EP, de Brito JM, do Nascimento ECT, et al. Tracking the time course of pathological patterns of lung injury in severe COVID-19. Respir Res 2021; 22: 32.
30. De Michele S, Sun Y, Yilmaz MM, Katsyv I, Salvatore M, Dzierba AL, et al. Forty postmortem examinations in COVID-19 patients. Am J Clin Pathol 2020; 154: 748-760.
31. Calabrese F, Pezzuto F, Fortarezza F, Hofman P, Kern I, Panizo A, et al. Pulmonary pathology and COVID-19: lessons from autopsy. The experience of European pulmonary pathologists. Virchows Arch 2020;477: 359-372.
32. Duarte-Neto AN, Monteiro RAA, da Silva LFF, Malheiros DMAC, de Oliveira EP, Theodoro-Filho J, et al. Pulmonary and systemic involvement in COVID-19 patients assessed with ultrasound-guided minimally invasive autopsy. Histopathology 2020; 77: 186-197.
33. Matthay MA, Zemans RL, Zimmerman GA, Arabi YM, Beitler JR, Mercat A, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2019; 5: 18.
34. Confalonieri M, Salton F, Fabiano F. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Eur Respir Rev 2017; 26: 160116.
35. Bos LDJ. COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome: not so atypical. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 202: 622-624.
36. Calfee CS, Matthay MA, Eisner MD, Benowitz N, Call M, Pittet JF, et al. Active and passive cigarette smoking and acute lung injury after severe blunt trauma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 1660-1665.
37. Fan E, Brodie D, Slutsky AS. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA 2018; 319: 698-710.
38. Matthay MA, Zemans RL. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: pathogenesis and treatment. Annu Rev Pathol 2011; 6: 147-163.
39. Gonzalez-Lopez A, Albaiceta GM. Repair after acute lung injury: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. Crit Care 2012; 16: 209.
40. Rawal G, Yadav S, Kumar R. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: an update and review. J Transl Int Med 2018; 6: 74-77.
41. Ware LB. Pathophysiology of acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 27: 337-349.
42. Ware LB, Koyama T, Billheimer DD, Wu W, Bernard GR, Thompson BT, et al. Prognostic and pathogenetic value of combining clinical and biochemical indices in patients with acute lung injury. Chest 2010; 137: 288-296.
43. Han S, Mallampalli RK. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: from mechanism to translation. J Immunol 2015; 194: 855-860.
44. Nuckton TJ, Alonso JA, Kallet RH, Daniel BM, Pittet JF, Eisner MD, et al. Pulmonary dead-space fraction as a risk factor for death in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1281-1286.
45. Koegelenberg CF, Irusen EM, Cooper R, Diacon AH, Taljaard JJ, Mowlana A, et al. High mortality from respiratory failure secondary to swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) in South Africa. QJM 2010; 103: 319-325.
46. Pierrakos C, Karanikolas M, Scolletta S, Karamouzos V, Velissaris D. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic options. J Clin Med Res 2012; 4: 7-16.
47. Zemans RL, Colgan SP, Downey GP. Transepithelial migration of neutrophils: mechanisms and implications for acute lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2009; 40: 519-535.
48. Sebag SC, Bastarache JA, Ware LB. Therapeutic modulation of coagulation and fibrinolysis in acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2011; 12: 1481-1496.
49. Ji HL, Zhao R, Matalon S, Matthay MA. Elevated plasmin(ogen) as a common risk factor for COVID-19 susceptibility. Physiol Rev 2020; 100: 1065-1075.
50. Prabhakaran P, Ware LB, White KE, Cross MT, Matthay MA, Olman MA. Elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in pulmonary edema fluid are associated with mortality in acute lung injury. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2003; 285(1): L20-28.
51. Dancer RC, Parekh D, Lax S, D'souza V, Zheng S, Bassford CR, et al. Vitamin D deficiency contributes directly to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Thorax 2015; 70: 617-624.
52. Hewison M. An update on vitamin D and human immunity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 76: 315-325.
53. Quraishi SA, Bittner EA, Christopher KB, Camargo CA Jr. Vitamin D status and community-acquired pneumonia: results from the third national health and nutrition examination survey. PLoS One 2013; 8(11): e81120.
54. Upala S, Sanguankeo A, Permpalung N. Significant association between vitamin D deficiency and sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Anesthesiol 2015; 15: 84.
55. Marini JJ, Gattinoni L. Management of COVID-19 respiratory distress. JAMA 2020; 323: 2329-2330.
56. Gattinoni L, Coppola S, Cressoni M, Busana M, Rossi S, Chiumello D. COVID-19 does not lead to a "Typical" acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 201: 1299-1300.
57. Chung M, Bernheim A, Mei X, Zhang N, Huang M, Zeng X, et al. CT imaging features of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Radiology 2020; 295: 202-207.
58. Grasselli G, Tonetti T, Protti A, Langer T, Girardis M, Bellani G, et al. Pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicentre prospective observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8: 1201-1208.
59. Tsolaki V, Zakynthinos GE, Mantzarlis K, Vazgiourakis V, Makris D. Pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med 2021; 9(1): e2.
60. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395: 497-506.
61. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020; 395: 1054-1062.
62. Mahjoub Y, Rodenstein DO, Jounieaux V. Severe covid-19 disease: rather AVDS than ARDS? Crit Care 2020; 24: 327.
63. Jounieaux V, Basille D, Abou-Arab O, Guillaumont MP, Andrejak C, Mahjoub Y. Pure SARS-CoV-2 related AVDS (Acute Vascular Distress Syndrome). BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21: 122.
64. Varga Z, Flammer AJ, Steiger P, Haberecker M, Andermatt R, Zinkernagel AS, et al. Endothelial cell infection and endotheliitis in COVID-19. Lancet 2020; 395: 1417-1418.
65. Marushchak M, Maksiv K, Krynytska I. ACE gene I/D polymorphism and arterial hypertension in patients with COPD. Pneumologia 2019; 68: 114-119.
66. Gattinoni L, Chiumello D, Caironi P, Busana M, Romitti F, Brazzi L, et al. COVID-19 pneumonia: different respiratory treatments for different phenotypes? Intensive Care Med 2020; 46: 1099-1102.
67. Fan E, Beitler JR, Brochard L, Calfee CS, Ferguson ND, Slutsky AS, et al. COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome: is a different approach to management warranted? Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8: 816-821.
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2. Roshanshad A, Kamalipour A, Ashraf MA, Roshanshad R, Jafari S, Nazemi P, et al. The efficacy of remdesivir in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review. Iran J Microbiol 2020; 12: 376-387.
3. Belice T, Demir I. The gender differences as a risk factor in diabetic patients with COVID-19. Iran J Microbiol 2020; 12: 625-628.
4. Wu Z, Mcgoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese center for disease control and prevention. JAMA 2020; 323: 1239-1242.
5. Kyrychko YN, Blyuss KB, Brovchenko I. Mathematical modelling of the dynamics and containment of COVID-19 in Ukraine. Sci Rep 2020; 10: 19662.
6. Kamyshnyi A, Krynytska I, Matskevych V, Marushchak M, Lushchak O. Arterial hypertension as a risk comorbidity associated with COVID-19 pathology. Int J Hypertens 2020; 2020: 8019360.
7. Burki TK. Coronavirus in China. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8: 238.
8. Pfortmueller CA, Spinetti T, Urman RD, Luedi MM, Schefold JC. COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS): current knowledge on pathophysiology and ICU treatment - a narrative review. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2021; 35: 351-368.
9. Hajjar LA, Costa IBSDS, Rizk SI, Biselli B, Gomes BR, Bittar CS, et al. Intensive care management of patients with COVID-19: a practical approach. Ann Intensive Care 2021; 11: 36.
10. Thibodeau R, Jafroodifar A, Quraeshi S, Lisi M. SARS-CoV-2 infection leading to ischemic and hemorrhagic brain lesions and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Radiol Case Rep 2021; 16: 753-759.
11. Chakraborty C, Sharma AR, Sharma G, Bhattacharya M, Lee SS. SARS-CoV-2 causing pneumonia-associated respiratory disorder (COVID-19): diagnostic and proposed therapeutic options. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2020; 24: 4016-4026.
12. Li X, Ma X. Acute respiratory failure in COVID-19: is it "typical" ARDS? Crit Care 2020; 24: 198.
13. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8: 475-481.
14. Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020; 395: 514-523.
15. Phan LT, Nguyen TV, Luong QC, Nguyen TV, Nguyen HT, Le HQ, et al. Importation and human-to-human transmission of a novel coronavirus in Vietnam. N Engl J Med 2020; 382: 872-874.
16. Hashemian SR, Aliannejad R, Zarrabi M, Soleimani M, Vosough M, Hosseini SE, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells derived from perinatal tissues for treatment of critically ill COVID-19-induced ARDS patients: a case series. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12: 91.
17. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, Zhang J, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; 323: 1061-1069.
18. Arentz M, Yim E, Klaff L, Lokhandwala S, Riedo FX, Chong M, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of 21 critically Ill patients with COVID-19 in Washington state. JAMA 2020; 323: 1612-1614.
19. Hu XS, Hu CH, Zhong P, Wen YJ, Chen XY. Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome in COVID-19 patients outside Wuhan: a double-center retrospective cohort study of 197 cases in Hunan, China. World J Clin Cases 2021; 9: 344-356.
20. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Xia J, Zhou X, Xu S, et al. Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med 2020;180: 934-943.
21. Bellani G, Laffey JG, Pham T, Fan E, Brochard L, Esteban A, et al. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA 2016; 315: 788-800.
22. Richards-Belle A, Orzechowska I, Gould DW, Thomas K, Doidge JC, Mouncey PR, et al. COVID-19 in critical care: epidemiology of the first epidemic wave across England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Intensive Care Med 2020; 46: 2035-2047.
23. Arulkumaran N, Green J, Khan A, Bonnici T, Longobardo A, Singer M. Influence of respiratory and inflammatory parameters preceding intubation on survival of patients with COVID-19 ARDS- A single centre retrospective analysis. J Crit Care 2021; 62: 289-291.
24. Tang X, Du RH, Wang R, Cao TZ, Guan LL, Yang CQ, et al. Comparison of hospitalized patients with ARDS caused by COVID-19 and H1N1. Chest 2020; 158: 195-205.
25. ARDS Definition Task Force, Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, Ferguson ND, Caldwell E, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA 2012; 307: 2526-2533.
26. Yang X, Hu M, Yu Y, Zhang X, Fang M, Lian Y, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for SARS-CoV-2 acute respiratory distress syndrome: a retrospective study from Hubei, China. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 7: 611460.
27. Australia and New Zealand Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ANZ ECMO) Influenza Investigators, Davies A, Jones D, Bailey M, Beca J, Bellomo R, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for 2009 influenza A(H1N1) acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 2009; 302: 1888-1895.
28. Gibson PG, Qin L, Puah SH. COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): clinical features and differences from typical pre-COVID-19 ARDS. Med J Aust 2020; 213: 54-56 e1.
29. Mauad T, Duarte-Neto AN, da Silva LFF, de Oliveira EP, de Brito JM, do Nascimento ECT, et al. Tracking the time course of pathological patterns of lung injury in severe COVID-19. Respir Res 2021; 22: 32.
30. De Michele S, Sun Y, Yilmaz MM, Katsyv I, Salvatore M, Dzierba AL, et al. Forty postmortem examinations in COVID-19 patients. Am J Clin Pathol 2020; 154: 748-760.
31. Calabrese F, Pezzuto F, Fortarezza F, Hofman P, Kern I, Panizo A, et al. Pulmonary pathology and COVID-19: lessons from autopsy. The experience of European pulmonary pathologists. Virchows Arch 2020;477: 359-372.
32. Duarte-Neto AN, Monteiro RAA, da Silva LFF, Malheiros DMAC, de Oliveira EP, Theodoro-Filho J, et al. Pulmonary and systemic involvement in COVID-19 patients assessed with ultrasound-guided minimally invasive autopsy. Histopathology 2020; 77: 186-197.
33. Matthay MA, Zemans RL, Zimmerman GA, Arabi YM, Beitler JR, Mercat A, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2019; 5: 18.
34. Confalonieri M, Salton F, Fabiano F. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Eur Respir Rev 2017; 26: 160116.
35. Bos LDJ. COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome: not so atypical. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 202: 622-624.
36. Calfee CS, Matthay MA, Eisner MD, Benowitz N, Call M, Pittet JF, et al. Active and passive cigarette smoking and acute lung injury after severe blunt trauma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 1660-1665.
37. Fan E, Brodie D, Slutsky AS. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA 2018; 319: 698-710.
38. Matthay MA, Zemans RL. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: pathogenesis and treatment. Annu Rev Pathol 2011; 6: 147-163.
39. Gonzalez-Lopez A, Albaiceta GM. Repair after acute lung injury: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. Crit Care 2012; 16: 209.
40. Rawal G, Yadav S, Kumar R. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: an update and review. J Transl Int Med 2018; 6: 74-77.
41. Ware LB. Pathophysiology of acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 27: 337-349.
42. Ware LB, Koyama T, Billheimer DD, Wu W, Bernard GR, Thompson BT, et al. Prognostic and pathogenetic value of combining clinical and biochemical indices in patients with acute lung injury. Chest 2010; 137: 288-296.
43. Han S, Mallampalli RK. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: from mechanism to translation. J Immunol 2015; 194: 855-860.
44. Nuckton TJ, Alonso JA, Kallet RH, Daniel BM, Pittet JF, Eisner MD, et al. Pulmonary dead-space fraction as a risk factor for death in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1281-1286.
45. Koegelenberg CF, Irusen EM, Cooper R, Diacon AH, Taljaard JJ, Mowlana A, et al. High mortality from respiratory failure secondary to swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) in South Africa. QJM 2010; 103: 319-325.
46. Pierrakos C, Karanikolas M, Scolletta S, Karamouzos V, Velissaris D. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic options. J Clin Med Res 2012; 4: 7-16.
47. Zemans RL, Colgan SP, Downey GP. Transepithelial migration of neutrophils: mechanisms and implications for acute lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2009; 40: 519-535.
48. Sebag SC, Bastarache JA, Ware LB. Therapeutic modulation of coagulation and fibrinolysis in acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2011; 12: 1481-1496.
49. Ji HL, Zhao R, Matalon S, Matthay MA. Elevated plasmin(ogen) as a common risk factor for COVID-19 susceptibility. Physiol Rev 2020; 100: 1065-1075.
50. Prabhakaran P, Ware LB, White KE, Cross MT, Matthay MA, Olman MA. Elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in pulmonary edema fluid are associated with mortality in acute lung injury. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2003; 285(1): L20-28.
51. Dancer RC, Parekh D, Lax S, D'souza V, Zheng S, Bassford CR, et al. Vitamin D deficiency contributes directly to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Thorax 2015; 70: 617-624.
52. Hewison M. An update on vitamin D and human immunity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 76: 315-325.
53. Quraishi SA, Bittner EA, Christopher KB, Camargo CA Jr. Vitamin D status and community-acquired pneumonia: results from the third national health and nutrition examination survey. PLoS One 2013; 8(11): e81120.
54. Upala S, Sanguankeo A, Permpalung N. Significant association between vitamin D deficiency and sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Anesthesiol 2015; 15: 84.
55. Marini JJ, Gattinoni L. Management of COVID-19 respiratory distress. JAMA 2020; 323: 2329-2330.
56. Gattinoni L, Coppola S, Cressoni M, Busana M, Rossi S, Chiumello D. COVID-19 does not lead to a "Typical" acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 201: 1299-1300.
57. Chung M, Bernheim A, Mei X, Zhang N, Huang M, Zeng X, et al. CT imaging features of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Radiology 2020; 295: 202-207.
58. Grasselli G, Tonetti T, Protti A, Langer T, Girardis M, Bellani G, et al. Pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicentre prospective observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8: 1201-1208.
59. Tsolaki V, Zakynthinos GE, Mantzarlis K, Vazgiourakis V, Makris D. Pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med 2021; 9(1): e2.
60. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395: 497-506.
61. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020; 395: 1054-1062.
62. Mahjoub Y, Rodenstein DO, Jounieaux V. Severe covid-19 disease: rather AVDS than ARDS? Crit Care 2020; 24: 327.
63. Jounieaux V, Basille D, Abou-Arab O, Guillaumont MP, Andrejak C, Mahjoub Y. Pure SARS-CoV-2 related AVDS (Acute Vascular Distress Syndrome). BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21: 122.
64. Varga Z, Flammer AJ, Steiger P, Haberecker M, Andermatt R, Zinkernagel AS, et al. Endothelial cell infection and endotheliitis in COVID-19. Lancet 2020; 395: 1417-1418.
65. Marushchak M, Maksiv K, Krynytska I. ACE gene I/D polymorphism and arterial hypertension in patients with COPD. Pneumologia 2019; 68: 114-119.
66. Gattinoni L, Chiumello D, Caironi P, Busana M, Romitti F, Brazzi L, et al. COVID-19 pneumonia: different respiratory treatments for different phenotypes? Intensive Care Med 2020; 46: 1099-1102.
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| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 13 No 6 (2021) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijm.v13i6.8072 | |
| Keywords | ||
| SARS-CoV-2; COVID-19 pandemic; Respiratory distress syndrome; Respiratory mechanics | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Krynytska I, Marushchak M, Birchenko I, Dovgalyuk A, Tokarskyy O. COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome versus classical acute respiratory distress syndrome (a narrative review). Iran J Microbiol. 2021;13(6):737-747.
